The United States Civil war

extraterrestrials essays

extraterrestrials essays Domestic Violence Against Men In the United States, many women cry out about domestic violence in their homes, but are the men always to blame? The idea that men would claim domestic violence against their spouse is practically unheard of. To men it may be a sign of weakness or just flat out embarrassing. The statistics show that in 100 cases of domestic violence, 40% is inflicted by the woman. In a year about 400,000 women are abused, and by doing the math, about 300,000 to 350,000 men are abused by their spouse each year. Men are abused almost as equally as men because, statistics back it up, men are not as outspoken as women are, and women are more emotional causing them to be more violent. From the Detroit News the statistics show that men were: 32% of the aggravated assault victims 10% of miscellaneous other offenses in crimes As stated before, it was said that 40% of men out of 100 cases were the victim of domestic violence, however, in 1998 the Department of Justice report on National Violence showed that only 36% of men were the victims of domestic violence. The numbers are still pretty close. In Murray Strauss and Richard Gelles Conflict Tactics Scales, their research showed that women are more likely to: assault with an object other than a knife or gun The current myth is that women are assaulted by men 90-95% of the time. The actual facts were that 1.5 million women and 835,000 men are the victims of domestic violence each year. The percentage of men abused for that fact is about 38-50%, which was according to major studies from Canada, the United States, and Great Britain. Another myth is that 20-35% of womens emergency room visits are there because of domestic viol ...

Contract Investment Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Contract Investment Strategies - Essay Example Hedging can be considered a source of financing for post-loss investment opportunities. Hedging has other dimensions besides financing the post-loss investment; it addresses the asset substitution and under investment problems, reduces the probability of insolvency, permits more effective managerial compensation contracts, and may help reduce tax liabilities when tax functions are convex. In nutshell hedging, is 1 - Taking a position in a futures market opposite to a position held in the cash market to minimize the risk of financial loss from an adverse price change. 2 - A purchase or sale of futures as a temporary substitute for a cash transaction which will occur later. (http://www.cme.com/edu/ai/trdwthr/weatherbackground11784.html) For example, let us take the example of a hedger. A soybean grower must plan production based on some idea of a market price. There are, however, no guarantee against the decline of soybean prices once planting has begun. If prices drops once production is under way, future sale proceeds of soybeans may not be enough to cover the production cost, thus putting in jeopardy the financial health of the grower. Hedging can protect the farmer against this type of price uncertainty. Very similar is the case of weather derivatives. Weather derivatives cover low-risk, high probability events, while weather, insurance typically covers high-risk, low-probability events, as defined in highly tailored or customized policies. For example, a company might use a weather derivative to hedge against a winter that forecasters thought would be 5 Fahrenheit warmer than the historical average (a low risk, high probability event) since the company knows its revenues would be affected by that kind of weath er. However, the same company would most likely purchase an insurance policy for protection against damages caused by a flood or hurricane (high-risk, low-probability events.) (http://www.cme.com/edu/ai/trdwthr/weatherbackground11784.html) In the example of the soybean grower, by locking in a floor price through the purchase of a soybean put option, the grower would for example, at least know that no matter where the future market price of Soybeans is at harvest time, He/she will be able to sell the soybeans at the strike price. Of course, to establish this future price floor, the grower must pay a premium to purchase the put options, but this cost can be priced into production at the outset like any other cost of production. An owner of an asset will loose mosey when the price of the asset falls. Value of a put option rises when the asset price falls. What happens to the value of a portfolio containing both the asset and the put when the asset price falls Clearly, the answer depends on the ratio of assets to options in the portfolio. If the ratio is equal to zero, the value rises, whereas if the ratio is infinity, the value falls. Somewhere between these two extremes is a ratio at which a small movement in the asset does not results in any movement in the value of the portfolio. Such a portfolio is risk free. The reduction of risk by taking advantage of such correlations between the asset and the option price movements is called hedging. This is the one example how options are used in hedging. Call options can also be used for hedging. When using put options to hedge, various strike prices exist for an option on a specific stock index and for a specific expiration date. For example, put options on the

U.S. GAAP vs. IFRS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U.S. GAAP vs. IFRS - Research Paper Example This allows matching of the accounting contract costs, as well as revenue with the accounting periods in which the construction work takes place (Bohusova, 2009). Another factor is that the accounting of fixed price construction contracts is done using percentage of the completion technique. According to Intermediate Accounting (2008), under such as case, the completed contract method is not permitted; there is no specific guidance on software revenue recognition and the guidance on sales of real estate is limited† (p.102). On the other hand, U.S. GAAP is based on rules; thus, it lacks an extensive guidance regarding revenue recognition specific to the type of contract or industry. Its revenue recognition is divided into two levels with the first part being the guidance in concepts statements. In the second level is the guidance for revenue recognition in particular industries, as well as transactions that are economically different. Revenue recognition in this case depends on two criteria that must be met as defined in the FASB Concepts Statement No.5, which notes that revenue must be realizable, as well as earned (Bohusova, 2009). Another point of difference is that in this case, the accounting for the construction contracts uses the percentage-of-completion method only on condition that certain criteria are met; if not the completed contract method is applied. Finally, GAAP unlike IFRS provides for a detailed on the recognition of software revenue, as well as on accounting for real estate sales (Int ermediate Accounting, 2008). In IFRS financial statement, the net income is exclusive of the interest expenses and interest revenues. IFRS reports on interest income with regard to financing activities only happens when the future economic benefits are put in place. On the other hand, GAAP performs report of its income under investing

Stem-Cell Research Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stem-Cell Research - Term Paper Example The practical use of blood stem use has been in existence for over 40 years with many clinical trials using tissue derived stem cells (Hug, 2010 104)Today stem cell research has developed into one of the most promising and influential fields of medical science. The nature of its experiments and methods, as well as the results, has also made it easily the most controversial. Its connection with cloning has opened it up to attacks from religious groups and with many believing that the science aims at enabling humans to play god. Stem cells are cells with the ability to divide indefinitely and result in a variety of specialized cells in a process known as developmental plasticity. This ability is common in embryonic cells, and they give the cells the highest potential for growth. Moreover, stem cells can be categorized into three different groups based on their differential abilities. Namely, embryonic, adult, and foetal stem cells, it is worth noting that adult stem cells have only rec ently come to be discovered since the presupposition was they rarely contain stem cells, this has been proved wrong by recent research . Tominipotent cells are to be found in exclusively in early embryos from an individual cell in this category, a complete organism can be formed. On the other hand, pluripotent cells exist as undifferentiated in blastocyst (Popular issues 2012). ... Embryonic Stem Cells One of the distinguishing characteristics of the embryonic stem cell is that it can transform into any other cell ranging from brain to liver cells. The chief source of these cells is the fertilized eggs from couples who are going through the In Vitro Fertilization. The 5 to 6 days old pluripotent embryos can differentiate into any one of the three germ layers (Appasani, 2010 pg 182) After the separation of the stem cells, replication of stem cell into stem cell lines follow that is a tedious process which does not guarantee results. Replication of stem cell lines may go on in culture dishes countless times and through a period of many years. Adult Stem Cells These can be found in both children and adults with the name setting them apart from the other kinds of stem cells. Adult stem cells are evident in human beings, but the process of their isolation and identification is what tasks specialists in this field. Consequently, the there is no clear cut information on whether they have restrictions to a variety of cells in relation to single tissue type or if they can exist as any tissue type (University of Edinburg Para 6). Foetal Stem Cells Unlike the other cell types, the foetal stem is easier to collect and have a lower likelihood of rejection (University of Edinburg Para 9). They are collected from aborted fetuses, the umbilical cord, or the placenta, however, Albeit considerably differentiated; they still have the potential to morph into other cell types making them excellent for transplant. However, the downside of these is that they can transmit condition such as leukemia that may not have been detected in the fetus. Besides, there is a plethora of moral and ethical issues, bearing in mind

Cattle breeding: Sanitary practices and perceptions

Cattle breeding: Sanitary practices and perceptions Chapter 1: Introduction Cattle are raised mainly for meat and dairy products in Mauritius. Cattle breeding are an essential component of modern agriculture. According to norms, safe food of animal origin must be free from pathogens and contaminants. There is a need to reduce the risk and if possible, eliminate it at the on the farm stage. Cattle disease compromise animal welfare, reduce productivity and can also infect human beings. Sanitary conditions and perceptions in cattle breeding farms are very important to ensure a better health of the cattle and consumers of the products. The main reason for disease prevention and management for breeders is the gain in productivity. Sanitary conditions are very crucial in the disease prevention and management. The health of the cow and its environment, improperly cleaned and sanitized milk handling equipment, and workers who milk cows and come in contact with milk due to a number of reasons could serve as sources of microbial contamination of milk (Yirsaw A.W,2004). Contaminants in the form of chemical residues are also of concern to public. Controlling the safety of food of animal origin at the primary production stage therefore involves all the measures (implemented at the farm or production unit level) necessary to ensure that these contaminants do not end up in animal products, or, if they do, that their levels do not exceed the maximum permissible levels, notably the maximum residue limits and microbiological criteria set by Codex Alimentarius Commission (OIE, 2008). Many factors influence milk composition and hence the nature and abundance of the microbial load. The conditions of raw milk production, in particular the hygienic practices of farmers (e.g washing of milking equipment an d pre and post milking udder preparation), determine the contents in useful products and spoilage microorganisms (lafarge V et al, 2004). Henceforth, this case study of dairy cattle breeders, help in meeting the following objectives of the project. The main objective of the study is to assess sanitary practices and perceptions in dairy cattle breeding farms. The specific objectives are: To assess the sanitary milking practices in dairy cattle breeding farm through pre-milking teat disinfection, foremilk rejection and post-milking teat disinfection. To investigate on sanitation practices in dairy cattle breeding farm through practices of cleaning and sanitizing milking equipment. To assess level of awareness on mastitis and sanitary conditions at farmers working place. To evaluate responses based on survey questionnaire on sanitary practices and perceptions on dairy cattle breeding farms. Chapter 2: Literature Review Evolution of dairy cattle breeding Mauritius is categorized as a net food importing country. The dairy production contributes negligibly to the countrys economy with only 2% local milk production (AREU, 2007). According to Milliken (1986), there were about 22,000 milch cattle in 1914, representing a little more than 50% of the total cattle herd at this time (Heera MK, 2008). However the number of cattle head and farmers has been steadily declining over the years, leading to the current situation of only 7150 heads for 1758 breeders (CSO, 2008). Traditionally, the dairy industry in Mauritius was dominated by backyard producers, mostly women. But many of them abandoned farming in the 1980s to take higher paid jobs in the textile and clothing manufacturing industry (Ackbarally N, 2009). Simultaneously the sanitary problems (number of complaints due to lack of sanitation) and diseases, poor management also accounts for the decline. Food crisis in relation to dairy cattle rearing The food crisis which has hit with alarming speed and force the planet over the past recent years has showed how vulnerable net importing countries, like Mauritius, are against such situation. The milk (UHT and powdered) import bill has increased from Rs 975 M in 2001 to Rs 1.8 billion in 2007, representing a 85 per cent rise, while the import volume has remained unchanged (around 17,500 tonnes) (Anon, 2009a). Since the early 1980s milk consumption has grown more than 3 percent per year in developing countries and is projected to grow even faster through 2020. Meat consumption has been growing about 5 percent per year and is expected to grow 2.7% per year through 2020 compared to a low 0.6% per year in rich countries (Zessin K.H, 2002). Hence in response to the global rising food prices and shortages, the government is implementing measures to foster local production of milk and meat to mitigate, in short and medium term, the dependency of the country on imported food commodities. To stimulate dairy production, the government has introduced a battery of grants and loans to purchase equipment, import improved genetic breeds and acquire land for grazing (Ackbarally N, 2009). Importance of Sanitation in dairy cattle breeding farm Sanitary condition is defined as the state of sanitation whereby sanitation is the formulation and application of measures designed to protect public health (wikipedia). The cattle breeding are often viewed as a lucrative opportunity. There are nevertheless a series of complications which may arise during such an event if proper hygiene and sanitation is not maintained. When it comes to sanitation at farm, it is closely linked with Food safety which is now universally recognized as a public health priority. There are a series of precaution that can be taken by farmers, right at the first stage of the food chain, to optimise the food safety control of products of animal origin (OIE, 2006). This inevitably means controlling the health status of the animals from which food products are derived. World organization for animal health (OIE) In this age of globalisation, ensuring healthy, hazard-free food is one of the key issues for international organisations working in this field. To this end, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) work closely together, each in its area of competence (OIE, 2008). Since 2002, the OIE has had responsibility for animal production food safety. The renewed importance conferred by the Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) to the OIE and to WHO/FAO has spurred the interest of countries around the globe (Zessin K.H, 2002). Preliminary Environmental report Cattle rearing do have certain direct and indirect impacts on the environment which require special attention while setting up a farm. Those impacts are mostly associated with solid and liquid waste originating from the farm such as; wastewater from cleaning activities, urine, and manure. Other problems such odour nuisance and flies nuisance are not to be omitted. In case the farm is near residential areas, consultation with neighbours and all other bodies who are likely to be affected by the farm is compulsory. According to Environmental Protection Act 2002, livestock rearing on a scale of up to 20 heads require a Preliminary Environmental Report in which all the environmental and socio-economic parameters are addressed and their impacts are identified and taken into account in the project design (Anon, 2009b). Dairy cattle breeding There are mainly three types of farms in Mauritius. These are: Small Scale farms Locally cattle breeding are more of a family business. Cattle rearing are carried out in a traditional manner in the backyard as a part time activity. The small cattle breeders also known as cowkeepers mostly live in the country side and they own on average two to three lactating cows that are kept in enclosed shed(RATES, 2004). The level of inputs and management vary greatly among the farmers and they are generally low because of limited facilities and lack of financial resources. Medium Scale farms Medium scale farm is quite similar to small scale farm. However they have slightly better management practices in terms of inputs (e.g. better feeding system) and modern techniques are applied e.g. use of milking machine ( Ackbarally N, 2009). Large Scale farms Presently there are two private farms namely Golden Cream Dairy farm ltd at Salazie and SKC Surat Co Ltd at Rose-Belle who are operating at large scale for commercial milk production. Another type of large scale farms which have almost ceased to exist is the Government Dairy farm. In the past there were three Government dairy farms that would keep around 200 head of cattle. Richelieu Livestock Breeding Station (RLPU) has been converted into a quarantine station and recently the Palmar Livestock Breeding Station has been closed. Presently there exists only the Curepipe livestock Research station where other species of livestock are also reared with the main objective to carry out research and development activities in livestock production and training for the benefit of farmers. Guiding objective for good dairy farming practice The guiding objective for good dairy farming practice is that milk should be produce on-farm from healthy animals under generally accepted conditions. This is achieved by applying good agricultural practice in the five areas. Health Management Cows that produce milk need to be healthy and an effective health care programme should be in place. Animal health care includes different veterinary treatments given to the animals for early detection of diseases, prevention of disease spread among healthy animals, prevention of transmission of zoonoses and to ensure traceability (FAO/IDF, 2004). It is important to have strict control of any animal introductions to prevent the movement of the infectious diseases onto the farm. Sick animals are liable to be a major source of disease to healthy animals and hence need to be segregated to reduce the chances of diseases spreading. In case where animals are imported or brought from other local farms, they need to be kept in isolation from the existing herd for about 30 days. This is done again to prevent contamination of existing herds by parasites and pathogens (AREU, 2004). Other activities such as vaccination and deworming schedules, hoof management and routine health assessment form p art of a good Health Management. Guidelines to be followed for effective housing of cows Dairy housing systems have a substantial impact on the overall health and longevity of dairy cattle (Barberg A.E et al, 2007). In addition to keeping animals healthy, a critical part of husbandry is also to make sure they are kept visibly clean. It is of particular importance, to reduce the possibility of contamination of the food, for milking animals and for animals destined for slaughter not to have dirty outer coats. A major influence on the cleanliness of the animals is the type of housing, the material used as bedding and the underfoot conditions if the animals are kept outside (A M Johnston, 2000). Where cows are kept indoors it is important that suitable and adequate buildings be provided if the cows are to be fully productive. Good dairy farm buildings are extremely important in considering any of the hygienic aspects of milk handling (WHO, 1962). The design of the housing system is also important so that there is adequate space and facilities to optimize feeding, collection of manure, cleaning, washing, artificial insemination. The housing system can be either loose or tied system with adequate space and facilities to optimize feeding, collection of manure, cleaning, washing, artificial insemination and milking (AREU, 2007). Layout The general layout of a dairy farm should be according to the number and category of animals to be housed. The cowhouse is a specialized building which should be carefully designed and constructed so as to provide comfortable and healthy housing for the cows and at the same time to enable them to be milked in clean conditions. Housing must be managed hygienically to avoid soiling of animal. A standing of 1.5m long has been found most suitable to enable cows to lie clean, but with the smaller breeds of cow 1.4m or less may be sufficient (WHO, 1962). Moreover it should be free of obstruction and hazards; dead ends, and steep and slippery pathways should be avoided. It should be resistant to adverse weather conditions and consequences thereof especially cyclones, unseasonal change causing cold or heat stress (FAO/IDF, 2004). The windows should be fitted with hinged shutters to be used in case of cyclonic conditions. Floor The floor should be non-slippery to minimize slipping and bruising due to rough uneven floors. Unsuitable floors may inhibit mounting or lead to injuries during mating. The floor should be preferably sloping 10 cm above surrounding ground to enable drainage of urine in a canal leading to a suitable point of disposal as required by the Sanitary Authority (AREU, 2007). Wall Plastering of the wall to a height of at least 1.5m is recommended to prevent accumulation of dirt, disease germs and to facilitate cleaning (WHO, 1962). Cowshed should be provided with at least two doors, one opening on the feeding passage and the other one on the manure cum milking passage. Ventilation and lighting The regular renewal of the air in a cowshed is essential for the maintenance of the health of the cows and prevention of contamination of milk (WHO, 1962). The cowshed should have sufficient openings to allow natural ventilation and adequate sunlight. This will enable proper supply of fresh air to remove humidity, allow heat dissipation and prevent build-up of gases such as carbon dioxide, ammonia or slurry gases (FAO/IDF, 2004). Direct sunlight helps to keep the shed dry and would act as a germ killer. Water Supply Water supply plays an imminent role in maintaining a proper sanitary balance in breeding farms. Besides being used for drinking purpose, efficient water supply helps in cleaning and other activities leading to part of proper sanitation. The cow needs a lot of water (up to 50L daily) to be able to produce saliva for rumination and milk production. It is best to allow the animal continuous access to ample fresh and clean water (AREU, 2004). Water is an obvious potential source of pathogens because it can contain nutrients from feed or manure and be contaminated with pathogens, thereby serving as a vehicle to contaminate or infect animals on consumption (CAST, 2004). E. coli 0157:H7 is found commonly in water troughs on farms and feedlots and persists in these environments for as long as four months (Lejeune J.T et al, 2001). Water supplies should be clear and free of excrement (FAO/IDF, 2004). Feed Management For healthy living and proper growth, reproduction and milk production, dairy cattle require a daily balanced diet. The feed contains nutrient namely carbohydrates, fat, proteins, minerals (e.g. calcium, phosphorus) and vitamins (A, D, E, K). Moreover, foodstuffs which are fed to animals must be free from both pathogens and undesirable residues. Since Mauritius is mainly based on a zero-grazing system, breeders have to make provision for forage based on a cut-and-carry fodder system. The source of forages varies among breeders; they are collected from Sugar Cane Estates or along roadsides, fallow lands, riverbanks, and state lands or vegetable fields (Heera M.K, 2008). Withholding periods should be applied to forage crops if they have been treated with agricultural chemical, prior to use as feed. Control storage conditions of feed The different control measures in relation to feedstuffs and its storage are as follows: Feeds intended for different species should be separated. No animal material should be included in dairy cattle feed rations. Appropriate storage conditions should be ensured to avoid feed contamination. It should be ensured that animals are not able to come into contact with contaminants in areas where these feed products are stored and mixed. Hay and dry feeds should be protected from a moist environment, silage and other fermented crops should be kept under hermetically sealed conditions(AREU,2004) Moldy feed should be rejected (FAO/IDF, 2004); feeding of any moldy stock feed to milking cows should be avoided. Particular care should be taken with wheat bran, silage, hay, bagasse, cotton seed cake as these contain poisonous fungal toxins that can be transferred to milk. Fungal mycotoxins may also be present in pasture. In New Zealand, the ingestion of saprophytic fungus containing the toxin, sporidesmin, causes the disease facial eczema with impaired liver function, photosensitivity, decreased milk production and sometimes death (Ferraud C, 1995). Although the disease is uncommon in other temperate countries, it is important to realize that increased forage use carries the risk of an increased incidence of pasture borne mycotoxicoses. Milk Milk plays an important role in our daily diet. Cows milk contains a wide array of key nutrients that help support human health. It is an excellent source of protein, calcium, potassium and phosphorus. Apart from being a nutritional food, milk has a high water activity, moderate pH of 6.4 to 6.6 and ample supply of nutrients, making for an excellent medium for microbial growth. There is wide spectrum of bacteria present in nature which can contaminate milk rendering it unsafe for human consumption or unfit for further processing. Human pathogens known or likely to contaminate raw milk Microorganisms are widely present in animals and in their environment. Disease in animals is inevitable on farms, no matter how good the husbandry (Johnston, 2000). The diseases that form the greatest threat to animals are caused by microorganisms that invade the body. Diseases could be infectious (of viral or bacterial origin), non-infectious (caused by parasites) or metabolic (caused by imbalanced diet). Specific infectious diseases are generally restricted to the large farms and metabolic diseases are more commonly seen in cattle belonging to small breeders (Sibartie D, 2001). Healthy dairy cattle are considered a reservoir for several of the most important food borne human disease pathogens (Tauxe, 1997). Nontyphoidal Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter jejuni are considered important treats to food safety because of the enormous number of illness they cause. Cattle have been shown to carry Salmonella at rates as high as 64% (CAST, 2004). Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli 0157:H7 are priority pathogens because of the severity of symptoms associated with infection and because of the number of deaths that occur in infected people. All of these pathogens are shed in cattle feces and can contaminate dairy farm premises including unpasteurised bulk tank milk (Ruegg P.L, 2003). Milk borne diseases Human-health threats from livestock come in two basic forms: (i) zoonotic diseases, and (ii) food-borne illnesses. Zoonotic diseases are those that arise in animals but can be transmitted to humans. Potentially pandemic viruses, such as influenza, are the most newsworthy, but many others exist, including rabies, brucellosis and anthrax (FAO 2009). A joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee (1970) on milk hygiene classified milk-borne diseases: infections of animals that can be transmitted to man: Primary importance: Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Streptoccocal infections, ;Staphyloccocal enterotoxin poisoning, Salmonellosis, Q fever. Lesser importance; cowpox, Foot and mouth disease, Anthrax, Leptospirosis and Tick-borne encephalitis infections primary to man that can be transmitted through milk: Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers, Shigellosis, Cholera, Enteropathogenic Escherchia coli, Non-diarrhoeal diseases, Streptococcal infections, Staphylococcal food poisoning, Diphtheria, Tuberculosis, Enteroviruses and Viral hepatitis (Kamalam S, 2005) Outbreaks associated to milk Warnings to consumers about the risks of drinking raw milk have been stepped up over recent years because health professionals are trying to protect health and have seen a resurgence in milkborne diseases that had dropped dramatically with pasteurization, as raw milk has become trendy and its marketing has increased (Szwarc S, 2009). Mastitis Worldwide, mastitis is the most common disease in dairy cattle (Tan et al, 2009). Mastitis is defined as an infection of the udder, caused by bacteria entering the quarter through the teat end. According to the US national mastitis council(1996); mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary gland in response to injury for the purpose of destroying and neutralizing the infectious agents and to prepare the way for healing and return to normal function ( Fadlelmoula A.A, 2007). This results in physical, chemical and microbial changes in the milk. It can be caused by a variety of bacteria or even fungi, the most common in Mauritius being Staphylococcus epidermidis (Sibartie D, 2001). Mastitis in dairy cattle represents a disease problem which is difficult to prevent or control effectively, since so many different workers have pointed out special instances which indicate that the susceptibility to mastitis manifested by related animals might have genetic basis: various studies have given heritability estimates for mastitis resistance ranging from 0.05 to 0.38 (Warwick E J et al, 1979). Principles of mastitis control Worldwide, farmers have achieved tremendous success in reducing the incidence of contagious mastitis by adopting five basic principles of mastitis control (Ruegg P.L, 2003): Postmilking teat disinfection Universal dry cow antibiotic therapy Appropriate treatment of clinical cases Culling of chronically infected cows Regular milking machine maintenance Sources of contamination of raw milk There are several principal sources of contamination of milk. From the time the milk leaves the udder, until it is dispersed into containers, everything with which it comes into contact is a potential source of more microorganisms. Within the udder Healthy Udder For many years, it was believed that milk drawn directly from the udder of a healthy cow was a sterile fluid, that is, it contained no living microorganisms (Yirsaw A.W, 2004). In healthy cows, many microorganisms resides in the teat cistern, teat canal and teat apex. Natural flora within the udder of healthy animals is not considered to contribute significantly to the total numbers of microorganisms in the bulk milk, nor the potential increase in bacterial numbers during refrigerated storage (Murphy S.C et al, 2000). The first few streams of milk from each teat should be collected, separated, discarded. This flushes out the organisms that entered the teat through the teat opening (FSA, 2006). Unhealthy Udder In cows having mastitis, the infected udders can shed lots of microorganisms into the milk. Selim and Culor (1997) found that Streptococci and coliforms are the most dominant isolated bacteria from milk followed by Staphylococcus spp (Yagoub S.O et al, 2005 ; Murphy S.C et al, 2000). Exterior of the udder Usually the microorganisms from the skin of the animals and the microorganisms from the environment where the cow is kept and milked cause contamination to the exterior of the udder. Common organisms associated with the bedding materials are staphylococci, streptococci, coliforms, spore formers, and other gram-negative organisms (Murphy et al, 2000; Elmoslemany A.M, 2009). Surface of milk handling and storage equipment The most important factor affecting the total bulk milk bacteria count is the cleanliness of the milking system. Utensils and equipment are known to be the greatest sources of contaminants. They may account for as much as 100,000 to billion organisms per milliliter (Murphy S.C et al, 2000). Pails, strainers, milking machines, cans, pipes bottles, and other equipment used for the handling of milk are sometimes not properly washed and sanitized. Organisms survive in the cracks, corners, crevices, dents, scratches and other irregularities of the utensils. Such neglect affords ideal conditions for the growth of microorganisms before the utensils are being used again. Refrigeration is also essential to prevent or slow the growth of bacteria in raw milk. Sanitary practices The consumers are nowadays well conscious about food hygiene and they demand high standards of milk quality. Hence it is fundamental that breeders respect the quality criteria of their product to satisfy the demand and to remain in competition. Milking performed under strict hygienic conditions, with strict attention to sanitary practices, will reduce the entry of microorganisms into the milk. Naturally the fewer the organisms that get into the milk, the fewer have a chance to grow. Personal hygiene of milk handler At all stages hygiene is necessary to prevent contamination of milk. This starts from the person first handling the milk that is the milker and all throughout its handling. It is the responsibility of the milker to follow strict level of personal hygiene to prevent direct contamination of the milk. Personal hygiene of milk handler includes the following (CAC, 2004): The milker should be in good health; those with an open wound or suffering from any skin disease or any other contagious disease should not come in contact with the milk. Any injury on hands or forearms must be covered with a water-resistant bandage. He should possess a valid food handler certificate issued by Sanitary Authority Effective washing of hands and arms with proper means; adequate clean water, soap, nail brush, and thereafter drying hands and arms with a clean cloth or disposable paper towel. He should properly trim nails and must not wear ring or any other jewelry so as not to injure the udder or teats. Neat appearance; wearing clean clothes, hair cap to cover hair. Smoking is not permitted in areas for milking, and milk storage (FSA, 2006). Pre-milking practices A good milking technique is essential for the production of safe raw milk. Cleaning of teats before milking is important to remove both visible soiling (e.g. feces, bedding, mud, residual post milking disinfectant) and bacteria which could contaminate the milk. Washing with water gives the cleanest udder, teat and flank. The water should be between 200C to 400C. Long hairs from the flank and udder should be removed regularly. The wet udder should be dried with paper towel which should be used only once to prevent the spread of bacteria and other pathogens to other cows. If paper towels are not available, sterilized cloth can be used but should be replaced regularly. Thorough washing and drying may be followed by treating with disinfectant (e.g. sodium hypochlorite solution or Dipal), an approved pre-dip solution which must be effectively removed before hand milking or cluster attachment. The use of predipping using iodine has demonstrated to reduce standard plate count and coliform c ounts in raw milk by five- and six-fold respectively as compared to other methods of premilking udder preparation (Galton et al, 1986). The overall reduction of microbial loads in raw milk through the use of predipping should result in reduced numbers of zoonotic pathogens. Predipping has been shown to reduce the risk of listeria monocytogenes in milk filters by almost four-fold (Ruegg, 2003). Foremilk rejection Before the real milking can start each quarter should be inspected for physical/chemical/organoleptic abnormalities by checking the foremilk. The first milk should be spread on a dark surface, a foremilk cup or a dark tile. Abnormal milk shows discoloration, flakes, shreds, clots, blood spots and/or wateriness (Bonnier et al, 2004). If the milk shows such warning signs then the milk should be kept aside because of the risks to humans. The examination of milk must also be done before attaching milking units. Fore-milking assists early detection of mastitis removes potentially contaminated milk from the teat canal and stimulates milk let down. Cows with infected udder (mastitis) and those under treatment with antibiotics should be milked last and the contaminated milk disposed of properly (FSA, 2006). Post-milking practices After fore-milking the milker will be aware if milk quality is satisfactory or not. If milk is free from warning signs, milking of the healthy udder can carried out for human consumption. To milk the cow clean, dry hand must be used and the whole hand should be used instead of only thumb and forefinger because the latter grip is considered bad for udder health and flow rate (Bonnier et al, 2004). Equipment used during milking As soon as milk comes out from the udder it gets into contact with the surface of the recipient vessel for example bucket/pail or aluminium can. Surfaces are usually metal, stainless steel, tinned steel or plastic and they should all be kept in good hygienic conditions. Nowadays Stainless Steel is used as the material of construction for Dairy and Food processing equipments world over to achieve the most exact requirements for easy maintenance, sanitation, product preservation, corrosion resistance and to avoid health hazardous effects of aluminium and plastic (http://www.busiverse.com/dairyproducts). The design of milking equipment, where used, and cans, should ensure there are no crevices or recesses that can interfere with proper cleaning (CAC, 2004). Chapter 3: Methodology Data collection Data collection was done by carrying out a questionnaire based survey. The questionnaire assessed the various sanitary practices and perceptions on the dairy farms. Desk study of recent reports on cattle breeding sector was also conducted to get relevant information on the topic. Moreover key informants like the Agricultural Research Extension Unit situated at St Pierre and the Veterinary Service Division at Reduit were approached. An appointment was fixed through contacts by email and phone call. After interviewing the concerned party, an idea of the current situation as concerned the cattle breeding of the livestock sector was obtained. The names, contact numbers and addresses of the dairy cattle breeders around the island were obtained. Statistical data was obtained from the government website of central statistic division. Questionnaire design The study was based on questionnaire survey among the dairy cattle breeders. While designing the questionnaire, the data collected was considered. The survey covered both management practices used on the farm and it was also composed of questions regarding beliefs and opinions about selected dairy breeding farm issues. The questionnaire consisted of different parts namely the sanitary condition of the cowshed, Pre-milking practices, post milking practices, and animal health. The types of questions used were mainly close ended type and only a few open ended. Sample size The sampling population was the dairy cattle breeders in Mauritius. It is obvious that the whole population cannot be surveyed, thus a total of 26 breeders were randomly selected using random numbers from a sampling frame that included addresses of all dairy cattle breeders registered by AREU. The her

Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been by Oates Essay -- Literary An

For centuries, society has placed a remarkably large emphasis on protecting the young from the many perceived errors of growing up. Effective sex education is resisted in many locations across the country in favor of somewhat comical biblical suggestions for abstinence until marriage even while the majority of those targeted teens are viewing the world as a more and more sexual place. So many views are weaving in and out of teenagers' newly formed adolescent minds that any effective argument for responsible attitudes or analysis of sexual behavior in teens should be expressed with a certain minimal degree of clarity. Unfortunately, this essential lucidity of advice is missing in the short story â€Å"Where are You Going, Where Have You Been,† in which the misguided Joyce Carol Oates creates the character of Arthur Friend as a clichà © personification of the inner demon of uncontrollably budding sexuality. Instead, the murky characterization of the antagonist presents nothing more than a confused and ambiguous view of the meaning of the story. According to popular belief, the character in question, Arthur Friend, is essentially the devil, or if not the fiend himself, a reasonable symbolic facsimile that serves to represent a similarly sinister aspect of society. There’s such a plethora of textual evidence to support this analysis that it’s often skipped over in discussions in favor of more â€Å"thought provoking† conversation. However, the demonic illustration of A. Friend is so present in the story that to skip it would be to unforgivably neglect an integral part of the story. In nearly every detail of description resides a sometimes insidious demonic allusion. The physical appearance being the most present, it describes Arthur as a man beh... ...ert explanation of the character, the audience would be able to see that Arnold meant exactly what she intended him to mean, and then could move onto the next aspect of the story. This would have cleared up the audience disconnect that currently remains present in her painfully dense story. Her choice to veil her main antagonist with so much symbolism hindered the reader’s ability to understand her story, thereby hurting any intended effect the story was to have. Works Cited Nmachiavelli, et al. â€Å"Question: What do the numbers 33, 19, 17 signify in the story? They are written along the side of Arnold Friend’s car.† Enotes.com. Enotes.com, Inc., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2010. . Oates, Joyce Carol. Where are You Going, Where Have You Been? N.p.: Epoch, 1966. N. pag. Print.

The Hunters: Phantom Chapter 17

Once he got outside, Stefan remembered that Elena had taken his car. Turning into the woods, he began to run, using his Power to speed his pace. The pounding of his feet seemed to thud, Guard her, Guard her. He knew where Tyler Smal wood had lived. After Tyler had attacked Elena at a dance, it had made sense to keep an eye on him. Stefan burst from the woods at the edge of the Smal woods' property. They owned an ugly house, in Stefan's opinion. An inaccurate portrayal of an old Southern manor estate, it was too big for the lawn it sat on and bulged with unnecessary columns and twisting rococo decorations. Just looking at it, Stefan had been able to tel that the Smal woods had more money than taste, and that the architects who'd designed it weren't educated in true classical forms. He rang the bel at the front door, then froze. What if Mr. or Mrs. Smal wood answered the bel ? He would have to Influence them to give him as much information as they could about Caleb, and then to forget Stefan had been there. He hoped he had the Power to do it: He hadn't been eating enough, not even of animal blood. But no one came. After a few seconds, Stefan sent questing tendrils of Power through the house. It was empty. He couldn't go in, couldn't search Caleb's room like he wanted to. Without an invitation, he was stuck out here. He wandered around the house, peering through the windows, but finding nothing out of the ordinary other than entirely too many gilded frames and mirrors. Behind the house he found a smal white shed. Sending Power toward it, he felt something slightly†¦ off. Just the slightest tinge of darkness, a feeling of frustration and il intent. The shed was padlocked, but the lock was easy enough to snap. And as no one lived here, he didn't need an invitation to enter. The first thing he saw was Elena's face. Newspaper clippings and photos were tacked al over the wal s: Elena, Bonnie, Meredith, himself. On the floor was a pentagram with more pictures and roses. Stefan's certainty that something was wrong solidified. Elena was in danger. Sending Power before him, searching desperately for any trace of her, he took off running again. As she drove away from the florist's, Elena turned the conversation with Stefan over and over in her mind. What was going on with him since they'd come back to Fel ‘s Church? It felt like there was part of him that he was holding back, hiding from her. She remembered the loneliness, the sinking, dizzy feeling of isolation that she had sensed when she kissed him. Was it Damon's loss that was changing Stefan? Damon. Just the thought of him was enough to cause an almost physical pain in her. Mercurial, difficult, beautiful Damon. Dangerous. Loving, in his own way. The thought of his name, written in water plants across Meredith's legs, floated through her mind. She didn't know what it meant. But there was no hope. She needed to stop lying to herself about that. She had seen Damon die. Yet it seemed impossible that someone as complex and strong and seemingly undefeatable as Damon could be gone so quickly and so simply. But that was the way it happened, wasn't it? She should know that death didn't often come with a grand show, that it usual y came when you were least expecting it. She had known that before al this†¦ al this stuff with vampires and werewolves and evil mysterious opponents. She had known al about the suddenness and simplicity of death for years, back when she was just normal Elena Gilbert, who didn't believe in anything supernatural, not even horoscopes or fortune-tel ing, much less monsters. She glanced at the passenger seat next to her, where there lay the bouquet of pink roses she had picked up to give to Margaret. And, next to them, a simple bunch of forget-me-nots. Like I'd ever forget, she thought. Elena remembered riding in the car toward home with her parents and baby Margaret on an ordinary Sunday afternoon. It had been a beautiful sunny fal day, the leaves of the trees by the roadside just beginning to be painted with red and gold. They'd gone to lunch at a little inn out in the country. Margaret, who was teething, had been cranky at the restaurant, and they'd taken turns walking her up and down on the porch of the inn for a few minutes at a time while the others ate. But in the car she was quiet, half drowsing, her light golden lashes fluttering down to rest for longer and longer periods against her cheeks. Elena's father had been driving, she remembered, and the radio had been tuned to the local station so he could catch the news. Her mother had twisted to look at Elena in the backseat, her sapphire blue eyes so like Elena's own. Her golden hair, touched with a little gray, was pul ed back in a French braid, elegant and practical. Smiling, she had said, â€Å"Do you know what I think would be nice?† â€Å"What?† asked Elena, smiling back at her. Then she saw a strange glitter, high in the sky, and leaned forward without waiting for a reply. â€Å"Daddy, what's that?† She'd pointed upward. Elena never found out what her mother had thought would be nice. Her father never answered what that was. The last things Elena remembered were sounds: her father's gasp and the screech of the car's tires. Everything after that was blank, until Elena had woken up in the hospital, Aunt Judith by her bedside, and learned that her parents were dead. They had died before the paramedics had even pried them out of the car. Before they restored Fel ‘s Church, the Guardians had told Elena that she should have died in that accident, and that her parents should have lived. The glitter had been their air car, and Elena had distracted her father at the worst possible moment, causing al the wrong people to die. She could feel the weight of it now, the guilt at surviving, her anger at the Guardians. She glanced at the dashboard clock. There was stil plenty of time before she had to be at Margaret's recital. Turning off the highway, she pul ed into the cemetery's parking lot. Elena parked the car and walked briskly through the newer part of the cemetery, carrying the forget-me-nots. Birds were chirping gaily overhead. So much had happened in this cemetery in the last year. Bonnie had seen one of her first visions among these tombstones. Stefan had fol owed her here, watching her secretly when she thought he was just the gorgeous new guy at school. Damon had nearly drained an old tramp under the bridge. Katherine had chased Elena out of the cemetery with fog and ice and a far-reaching, far-seeing evil. And, of course, Elena had driven off a bridge to her death here by the cemetery, at the end of that first life, the one that seemed so long ago now. Elena picked her way past an ornate marble memorial to Fel ‘s Church's Civil War veterans and down to the shady glen where her parents were buried. The tiny wildflower bouquet she and Stefan had left two days before had withered, and Elena threw it away and put the forget-menots in its place. She picked a bit of moss off her father's name. The lightest crunch of gravel sounded from the path behind her, and Elena whirled around. There was no one there. â€Å"I'm just jumpy,† she muttered to herself. Her voice sounded oddly loud in the quiet of the cemetery. â€Å"Nothing to worry about,† she said more firmly. She settled in the grass by her parents' graves and traced the letters on her mother's headstone with one hand. â€Å"Hi,† she said. â€Å"It's been a while since I've actual y sat here and talked to you, I know. I'm sorry. An awful lot has happened†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She swal owed. â€Å"I'm sorry, too, because I found out that you weren't supposed to die when you did. I asked the Guardians to†¦ to bring you back, but they said you had moved on to a better place and they couldn't reverse that. I wish†¦ I'm glad you're happy wherever you are, but I stil miss you.† Elena sighed, lowered her hand from the gravestone, and trailed it through the grass by her knees. â€Å"Something's after me again,† she continued unhappily. â€Å"After al of us, I guess, but Bonnie said I brought it here when she was in a trance. And later she said he wants me. I don't know if it's two different people – or whatever – after us, or just one. But it's always me the bad things focus on.† She twisted a blade of grass between her fingers. â€Å"I wish things could be simpler for me, the way they are for other girls. â€Å"Sometimes†¦ I'm so glad to have Stefan, and glad I could help protect Fel ‘s Church, but†¦ it's hard. It's real y hard.† A sob was building in her throat and she swal owed it back. â€Å"And†¦ Stefan's always been there for me, but I feel like I don't know al of him anymore, especial y because I can't read his thoughts. He's so tense, and it's like he needs to be in control al the time†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Something shifted behind her, just the slightest hint of movement. She felt a warm, damp breeze like a breath on the back of her neck. Elena whipped her head around. Caleb was crouching behind her, so close they were almost nose-to-nose. She screamed, but Caleb slapped his hand over her mouth, muffling her cry.

applied sociology essays

applied sociology essays The results I found for attitudes towards suicide were what was expected. I ran the significance values for level of education (degree) and for age. However my disk contracted a virus and I lost my data set and was not able to run significance values for my other independent variables (age, income). What I found was that attitudes towards suicide were affected by degree and age. Degree was the most powerful predictor of attitudes towards suicide. I used the Somersd method because both the dependent variable and the independent variable had nominal values. The Somersd value was .187 and was significant at the 001 level. This means that there is a 18.7 or 19% reduction in error in predicting attitudes towards suicide by knowing the respondents highest degree earned. The higher someones education the more likely that they can see suicide acceptable in at least one situation. Table 1 shows the extremes of the degree category to display the strong correlation. We can see, of the respondents who had less than a High school Diploma only 54.6% of them could not see suicide acceptable in any of the four situations. Out of all the respondents who earned a high school diploma only 41% of them could not deem suicide acceptable in any situation and out of all the respondents who have higher than a high school diploma only 30% of them could not accept it in any situation. The Chi Square could not be interpreted because there was not 5 people in every cell. Technically in this circumstance we can not reject the null hypothesis, but there was only one cell with three and we found that there is a 19% significance value so we can assume that three is a relationship between our independent and dependent variables. TABLE 1. ATTITUDES TOWARDS SUICIDE AS COMPARED WITH Age was another strong predictor of attitudes towards suicide. Once again ...

Trustworthiness and Credibility of Public Office

Trustworthiness and Credibility of Public Office Trustworthiness and Credibility of Public Office Greece Finance Minister #ProfesorVaroufakis, a political economist, economics professor, and author of several academic texts in economics and game theory, in a TV interview, warns leaders of the European Union of â€Å"inevitable contagion† if Greece leaves the eurozone. This economic prediction, regardless of evidence, was immediately taken as feasible, made the headlines of several reputable newspapers, and attracted the attention of EU leaders including the European Central Bank Manager who even recorded Varoufakis’ TV interview. What if a non-academic politician made a similar statement? Are media and public reception the same? THE BRIGHT SIDES OF ACADEMIC INTELLECTUALS WE CALL NERDS One advantage of having a strong academic background is intellectual credibility; a reputation gained from scholarly achievements and contributes to the credibility of a public official. Politics according to literature consist of relationships and interactions between people and government. However, the legitimacy of political statements is highly dependent on public official’s academic integrity and intellectual credibility. Minister Varoufakis’ political statement, therefore, is readily taken as legitimate as it was delivered by a university economics professor, academic text author or person with unquestionable academic integrity and intellectual credibility. Another advantage is the fact moral credibility is often gained when people trust your academic intellect and inspired by your professional recommendations. Results of several communication management types of research suggest that trust and credibility often determine the legitimacy of public statement that either not directly or immediately verifiable. For this reason, politicians without academic, intellectual, and moral credibility are often faced with problems legitimizing their decisions and policies. The public according to research is not only interested in finding a confusing mix of controversial or contradictory information but credibility and trustworthiness of the person making the statement. Academic and Politics are Entirely Different Worlds Academic intellectuals are normally operating under conditions of openness and free discussion, freedom to research, and pride themselves as sources of objective knowledge and worthy of public trust. For this reason, most academics usually do not agree on corporate-funded technology research that often requests them to maintain confidentiality and alter basic academic practices. These practices are some of the reasons why authors like Posner want academic intellectuals to stay out of politics. The first disadvantage of the electing academic intellectual in public office is the fact that social and political affairs are best left to experts. Second, since academic intellectuals are hired, paid, tenured, and closely controlled by professional norms, they are unlikely to become romanticized or emulated social models. Third, since a good politician possesses organizational and sociability traits, political will and patriotic heart, caring and an expert in public affairs, and a person of conscience, an objective, and norm-controlled academic intellectual are unlikely to become one. In reality, most academics are not the type of people who enjoy socializing, caring, exercising political will, and resolving issues with the conscience. In case an academic decided to enter politics and got elected, he or she is more likely to become a â€Å"judge† politician, a public servant who makes political decisions and policies based on academic objectivity and professional norms rather than conscience and political will.

Amerigo Vespucci Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Amerigo Vespucci - Research Paper Example This fact is proven by letters and other passages of text found attributed to Vespucci (Uzielli). He studied the sciences of physics, cosmography, astronomy, and geometry, contributing immensely to their progress (Uzielli). Therefore, it is fair to say that Vespucci was not just a gifted navigator, as is known of him more commonly, but also an eager student of science, who quickly mastered the existing sciences and was a learned man of his time. After the death of his father in 1483, Vespucci joined the household of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici as steward (Uzielli). Due to his loyalty and his skill, he was promoted in rank and position in the household till he was made a businessman with the family. It was through this business opportunity that Vespucci was able to acquire ships and join the expeditions of Columbus into the New World (Uzielli), this being described fully in the proceeding paragraphs of this paper. In 1491, Vespucci came to Spain and settled in Seville, a place that was to serve as his hometown for the rest of his life, and from where he would launch around four voyages to the New World (Amerigo Vespucci). At that time, it was felt in Europe, due to reasons beyond the scope of this paper, that the East and the Indies should be reached by way of the West, something that became more of a motto for the navigators of that time (Uzielli). Therefore, the voyages of Columbus and later of Vespucci were to become so significant, both economically and geographically. On the 10 of May, 1497, after acquiring three ships from the King of Castille, Vespucci set sail on his first voyage toward the West, through the Fortunate Islands towards either Guiana or Brazil (Uzielli). It is believed that he might have made his made into the Gulf of Mexico and then sailed along a great portion of the United States as far up as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, before returning to Spain on the 15 of October, 1498 (Uzielli). Vespucci sailed on his second voyage from Spain on the 16 of May, 1499 (Uzielli). He was accompanied by Alonzo de Ojeda and Joan de la Cosa (Uzielli). It was on this second voyage that he discovered Cape St. Augustine and the Amazon River (Uzielli). He traveled through Cape Verde and Equator until he landed on the coast of Brazil (Uzielli). Due to the exhaustion that he contracted owing to his long travels, he was taken ill when he returned to Spain in the September of 1500 (Uzielli). It was after he got well again that he wrote an account of his travels in his second voyage (Uzielli). The fourth and the fifth voyages of Vespucci commenced from Portugal instead of Spain (Uzielli). On 1 January, 1502, he named the Gulf of Bahia on his third voyage (Uzielli). In the same voyage, he discovered the Island of Georgia when he was traveling to the South America after he had discovered Bahia (Uzielli). During his fourth voyage in 1503, having found an area rich in brazil-wood, he established an agency in the Cape Frio (Uzielli). Ac cording to some sources, Vespucci made another voyage, a fifth one, in 1505, to the West, during which he found gold and pearls in the area (Uzielli). This was followed by a sixth voyage for the same purpose (Uzielli). However, not much evidence is found of these two last voyages, not even in Vespucci’s own writings (Uzielli). In 1505, Vespucci is believed to have married a lady by the name of Maria Cerezo (Uzielli). She bore him no children, and died either in 1523 or 1524 (Uzielli). However, Vespucci took his brother’

Voluntary environmental management initiatives Essay

Voluntary environmental management initiatives - Essay Example This defines the basic approach the company takes in implementing the system. If the focus is on compliance, then the benefits that the company will expect are reduction in their liabilities. (A Strategic Approach to ISO 14001) This is an EMS and the company is likely to consider it a cost. On the other hand, if the company's objective is to improve their products, design and processes, with the attendant benefits of pollution reduction, but more importantly customer satisfaction, then it could be a VEMI and the company would consider this an investment. The company, in this case, will not be worried about the certification per se, but about the satisfaction of the stakeholders. This does not, of course, mean that the certification is not necessary or is useless, but the company in question is pursuing real results in terms of pollution reduction and improvement in the processes and products, leading to customer and stakeholder satisfaction. (A Strategic Approach to ISO 14001) To answer the question - 'Why are VEMI's important' - The first thing that we need to understand is that it is more realistic than an ISO 14000-oriented EMS. To elaborate, there can be no uniformity in the framework to be used to implement EMS systems - this will differ from company to company, industry to industry. For instance, a retailer may focus on how environment friendly the suppliers are; while a chemical company may focus on how to develop products that cause less harm to the environment and how to recycle the waste products. Even the expectations in the ISO context - that the company has a commitment to ensure compliance, that it seeks to improve its systems on a continuous basis and that it aims to control pollution - cannot be evaluated in the same way for different facilities. (A Strategic Approach to ISO 14001) To take the example of the first expectation - commitment to compliance - different nations have varying levels, strictness and coverage in their environmental regulations. Since ISO 14000 stipulates compliance with regard to the location of the company seeking certification, it may be that a company located in a country where there are less number of laws, will be able to show compliance sooner and with much greater ease. (A Strategic Approach to ISO 14001) The chance of companies getting the certification by adhering to certain minimum regulation requirements is also high. Hence, for real environment management in letter and spirit, it may be necessary to motivate companies to take up VEMI, where they are genuinely interested in environmental improvement. VEMI will therefore be the instrument through which real environment management systems with responsible environment friendly actions take place. Voluntary initiatives or programmes are of three types, according to Lyon and Maxwell. They can be unilateral commitments in which case business organisations voluntarily set up environmental initiatives or programmes. The organisation and not the government take the initiatives in this kind of programme. They can also be public voluntary programmes, where more than one firms agree to adapt the standards established by a public body, like an environmental agency. They can also be negotiated agreements where the government industry